Study

last updated:December 2008

What did the review find out about dyslexia?

The causes of dyslexia have been debated by experts for many years and remain unclear. Similarly, a consensus on the precise nature of dyslexia has still to be reached, although there is much more agreement than there was. Past research has been more concerned with the investigation of signs and symptoms than with explanations and causes.

The review summarised here departed from a traditional main focus on investigating the signs and symptoms of dyslexia. Instead, it focused on dyslexic behaviours in the context of the generic and cognitive anomalies that underpin them and the environmental forces at work on them, and pointed to an increasing if not finally resolved, consensus about the nature of the condition. This literature review synthesised educational, psychological and biological evidence about the nature, causes and diagnosis of dyslexia, and described approaches and strategies for supporting dyslexic pupils, that featured in the research. 

What are the characteristic behaviours of dyslexic learners?

The review summarised the characteristic behaviours shown by dyslexic learners that were found in a wide range of studies. These were usually cast in the form of 'difficulties' – how dyslexia affects information processing (receiving, holding, retrieving and structuring information) leading dyslexics to have:

• difficulties in effectively using short and long-term memory in sequencing numbers, letters and mathematical procedures, etc and with remembering information, such as messages and phone numbers
• difficulty in processing information at speed
• organisational difficulties, including problems with maps or finding the way to a new place
• phonological difficulties, such as word recognition when reading or speaking out loud
• visual difficulties in relation to reading words, caused by blurring or moving letters
• co-ordination difficulties, e.g. with controlling a pen – leading to untidy handwriting, that makes it difficult to get ideas down on paper
• difficulties in utilising meta-cognitive strategies, such as explaining how they arrived at an answer.

What did the study find out about links between phonology and dyslexia?

Dyslexia often appears in the form of problems with phonological skills (i.e. those that relate to speech sounds in a language, in this case English) and particularly with recognising how to use the conventional sound structure of words. Dyslexic learners may also be very slow to remember how to say words.

Research has shown that dyslexic learners’ difficulties can be linked to the child’s first language. The simpler and more consistent the mapping of the alphabetic letters/symbols to sounds in a language, the lower the risk of children having phonological problems. Languages with complex orthographies such as English, showed a greater occurrence of this type of dyslexia. (Orthography is a method of representing the sounds of a language by written or printed symbols.)

The research showed that word recognition problems are not linked to the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) of the individual. It is a deficit in phonological processing abilities when compared with the IQ of the individual concerned that acts as a pointer to dyslexia in the most current and widely held understanding. Some studies showed evidence that children who are delayed in their phonological development are at heightened risk of dyslexia than non-dyslexic readers.

Early identification

The earlier a child with dyslexia was identified and given appropriate intervention, the more successful were the results – vital clues such as family history, delay in speech and difficulty with spelling helped in identifying children at risk. Teachers and parents usually played a crucial role in the initial diagnosis.

What did teachers and schools do to support the learning of dyslexic children?

No single approach helped the problems all dyslexic learners faced, but teaching approaches that seemed to have positive effects included the use of tactile and multisensory methods, using different ways to present information, and offering learners the opportunity to practise and revise in meaningful contexts.

There was also evidence that students with dyslexia benefited from talking about what helps them to learn. Teachers helped these students by creating and maintaining a learning environment where making mistakes was seen as part of the learning process.

Programmes featured in the review were found to be more successful if, in addition to practical support, they emphasised activities that allowed dyslexic learners to recognise not only their weaknesses, but also their strengths and areas of competence. The research emphasised the importance of building on the strengths and successful learning experiences of students with dyslexia rather than emphasising the negative features of dyslexia.

The review suggested that whilst dyslexic learners had problems with reading and writing they might be highly gifted in other areas, including:

• being creative
• having the ability to think laterally and make novel connections
• being able to see the ‘big picture’
• having good visual and spatial skills, such as in engineering and design
• having good problem-solving, verbal and social skills.

Whatever the specific strategies teachers decided to adopt, the research suggested that other factors that can help dyslexic students learn well include approaches that allow them to:

• make personal, meaningful connections to secure things in their long term memory
• remember patterns rather than sequences, and landmarks rather than directions
• think holistically ‘all at once’ rather than step-by-step
• learn to read and write by being interested in the subject
• learn from practical experience, rather than being told.

The study found evidence of a number of effective teaching and learning processes, which are covered in the following sections, including:

• the use of phonologically related techniques
• the creation of a ‘dyslexia friendly’ environment in schools – techniques designed to support and enhance learning of dyslexic pupils can enhance the learning of all pupils. Dyslexia friendliness was also found to be a good way of raising school-wide awareness of the learning difficulty
• the use of customised software (e.g. one multimedia program used interesting graphics and featured a game-like task for teaching spelling).

How helpful were phonologically related techniques for supporting dyslexic learners?

The research covered by the review showed a growth in the number of experts who viewed reading as consisting of two independent processes that involved phonological processing skills:

• decoding, which requires the use of lower order language skills to convert letters into sound sequences
• linguistic comprehension skills.

There was good theoretical and empirical research rationale for interventions aimed at promoting phonological processing skills. It was asserted that ‘[the] widespread consensus in the field is that phonological processes play a key role in learning to read’. In this view, the ‘central problem of dyslexia’, was learning to read, which, the review found, could be tackled by using the right teaching methods and tools for decoding and language comprehension. Three of these approaches are described below. The common element in the approaches was improving the phonological processing skills of the learners.

Multisensory method

Multisensory approaches involved auditory, visual and kinaesthetic elements in a mutually supportive way. An example from the DfES publication A framework for understanding dyslexia (See Further reading) describes some of the features of this approach: a dyslexic learner would be taught to see a letter, say its name and sound and write it in the air. A teacher trained in this method introduced the elements of the language systematically. Learners began by writing sounds in isolation then they blended the sounds into syllables and words and then consonants, vowels, digraphs (two signs or characters combined to express a single articulated sound such as ea in head, or th in bath), blends (a group of consonants that appear together in a word without any vowels between them such as fl or dr) and diphthongs (a union of two vowel sounds pronounced in one syllable such as ou in out, oi in noise). As they learned new material they continued to revise material already covered.

Auditory discrimination in depth (ADD)

The ADD programme was designed to directly raise learners’ phonemic awareness and their ability to manipulate sounds in words. It supports learners’ decoding skills by helping them recognise articulatory cues for sounds in words. The cues include sensory information from eyes, ears, and mouth that help learners to identify, classify, and label phonemes. For example, the sounds /p/ and /b/ are called “lip-poppers” because of the articulatory processes involved. Students are helped to recognise the number, identity and order of phonemes in words. Once they have mastered this process, letter symbols associated with the phonemes are introduced. The learner is taught to 'track' sounds within speech using, for example, coloured wooden blocks to represent the sounds. The teacher might ask, 'If that says /ib/, show me /ab/.' Word identification and spelling moves from simple to complex, to multi-syllable words. Learners distinguish both nonsense patterns (to minimise memorisation) and real words. Teachers use reading in context based on material at the same level as what the student is able to 'track'.

Embedded phonics (EP)

The EP approach shares features of the ADD programme, but there is a greater emphasis on teaching phonetics directly. Learners are explicitly taught phonemic decoding strategies, such as letter-sound knowledge and blending. It places an emphasis on spelling and writing activities and word identification strategies while the learners read stories and other text.

A more detailed treatment of phonics teaching and learning is presented in the RfT summary Teaching phonics effectively, based on the Rose review of early reading.

However, there are three interlinked, complicating factors that the review we are summarising here identified as influencing the impact of this approach:

• the severity of the child’s phonological difficulty
• other language skills (eg, semantic skills including vocabulary, comprehension and sentence construction)
• the type of teaching the child experiences.

Despite the effectiveness of using phonological approaches, ‘remediation programmes aimed at training phonological skills were not always entirely successful’. In seeking to explain this, some researchers took the view that phonics or letter recognition alone was not sufficient for word identification and reading. Knowing the position of a letter relative to the other letters in a word is necessary for correct word identification: for example, distinguishing ‘trap’ from ‘tarp’ or ‘part’ requires correctly locating the spatial arrangement of the letters in the word.

Case study 1 is an example of an effective remedial phonological programme based on a structured, developmental, sequential teaching approach.

How did teachers create a ‘dyslexia friendly’ learning environment?

One study in particular strongly supported the creation of a ‘dyslexia friendly’ environment in schools. Although ‘changing a school for the benefit of the 10+% of pupils who are dyslexic may be a difficult package to sell’ because of the changes it demands, results from a case study school showed that all the pupils benefited. Dyslexia friendliness was also found to be a key instrument in raising school-wide awareness of this learning difficulty. Research quoted in the review supported the view that where the learning environment was ‘dyslexia friendly’ there was a positive impact on these learners’ self-esteem, compared to dyslexic students in ordinary classrooms.

What is a dyslexia friendly school like? How can an ordinary school be transformed into one that is dyslexia friendly? The case study showed that a dyslexia friendly environment was characterised by a number of factors, including:

• staff trained in ‘dyslexia friendly’ techniques
• specialist provision – dyslexic learners taught by a very experienced and highly qualified dyslexia specialist, with extra time created for the specialist tuition
• strong leadership from the school management e.g. outlining the procedures involved in the process to ensure clear understanding of the targets
• whole school approach to special needs in general, including an awareness session presented to all school staff (including teaching and office staff, classroom assistants etc), involving experts
• a culture of high expectation for all
• rigorous monitoring and evaluation
• school staff and parents working in collaboration, e.g. to form a steering committee for planning ways to enrich the learning environment.

Research identified in the review found that where a dyslexia friendly policy had been adopted by one school, teachers used a variety of strategies ranging from the most simple (e.g. displaying key words, giving photocopied notes) to a specific teaching technique (e.g. multisensory teaching), which were useful for supporting children with dyslexia. This study also suggested using a constructive system for marking or grading, where separate marks were given for content and presentation and students were given a choice of whether or not they wanted to read out loud in class.

Other research in the review highlighted the positive impact on some dyslexic learners when teachers and students worked together to identify the learners’ preferred learning styles and based some of the teaching on them. However, the research also cautioned that learners may find a range of learning approaches useful and care was needed to avoid labeling students as being particular types of learners.

Case study 2 shows the key components that underpinned a school’s dyslexia friendly approach and empowered dyslexic students to achieve their potential.

How did ICT help and did it have any drawbacks?

The review suggested that customised software for dyslexic learners (e.g., a multimedia program that used interesting graphics and features a game-like task used for teaching spelling) can benefit dyslexic learners, for example, with text reading and writing.

Computers have a number of features which are helpful to those who have literacy problems including those with dyslexia, such as:

• consistent and clear text on the screen
• choice of screen background colours
• spelling aids
• grammar function
• a predictive-typing facility.

One specific program reported in the review, developed by a team consisting of a software engineer, a teacher with a specialism in dyslexia, a psychologist and a programmer, was SeeWord. This was a word processing environment that allowed dyslexic learners to select the settings they considered most appropriate for reading the text. It was valuable, for example, for those who needed to wear tinted glasses when reading to control for distortions in text such as apparent ‘text moving’ on the page. The review found evidence suggesting that dyslexic learners benefited when reading from the screen using this special software, although this was not a uniform finding.

How did schools tackle low self-esteem?

One of the consequences of dyslexia noted by the review was how children with dyslexia suffered low self-esteem as a result of the difficulties they faced, which then became part of a vicious spiral: making progress more difficult, and leading to even lower self-esteem. This had the potential of culminating in low motivation and in some cases behavioural problems.

Case study 3 explored how being dyslexic affected students’ confidence and self-esteem, both of which affect success in learning. Teachers may find it helpful to be aware of these factors as potential indicators of dyslexia.

There was evidence on the other hand of how success could build virtuous circles; that pupils’ ‘expectations of success’ had an empowering effect. Some of the classroom-based strategies researchers suggested to support dyslexic learners, and prepare them for more challenging tasks, included:

• activities that were highly challenging, but which incurred low stress levels
• immediate use of feedback to acknowledge learners’ success or progress in doing classroom tasks
• providing a combination of activities and learning strategies
• supporting dyslexic learners as they worked within their comfort zones, especially during the initial stages of the task to enable them to start successfully.

The review authors believed that programmes would be more successful if, in addition to practical support, teachers emphasised activities and tasks that enabled dyslexic learners to recognise not only their weaknesses, but their strengths and areas of competence too.

Our earlier RfT,  Promoting students' persistence in meeting challenges, based on the work of Carol Dweck focuses on student motivation and achievement. It explores how these factors relate to beliefs that students hold about themselves and themselves as learners.

The review identified a number of out-of-school programmes/courses organised for dyslexic learners, which empowered the children because they were carried out in an informal environment and the tasks were enjoyable and educational. The pupils realised that despite being dyslexic, they could still be creative and productive individuals. Being with other children in similar circumstances to their own, helped the children to create a shared sense of belonging and mutual support. The focused nature of these organised activities was a key factor in bringing about changes in attitude and behaviour. The review described the Flying Start Programme which offered out-of-school programmes for dyslexic learners. Workshops included film-making, photography, story-telling and a range of artistic and craft activities.

Case study 4 shows how the literary practices of a group of seven dyslexic children were successfully promoted, such that they became a community of writers.

How was the review conducted?

The review authors used a number of methods to identify relevant studies, including:

• searching bibliographic databases using keywords, CD RfTs and the internet
• scrutinising government reports, policy documents and conference proceedings
• sourcing unpublished reports using the Education-line database
• hand searching journals not available electronically
• consulting colleagues and experts in the field.

Altogether the reviewers drew data from 102 relevant sources which they analysed and synthesised to provide examples of best teaching and learning practices for dyslexic learners and the implications for Scottish education. The review included case studies of ‘best practice’ from the UK and other countries.

Although there are some common strands in all approaches to tackling dyslexia, there are also some examples of other highly contextual specific strategies that are also linked to success. It is not the case that the review provides evidence that these and no other strategies work. For example, there is experimentation with the use of movement that is linked with success as described in case study 5. 


What are the implications of the study?

Teachers may like to consider the following in making use of the findings of the study.

• Research described in the study identified good practice that built up students’ phonological skills, including using methods designed to help children identify phonemes and their order in words. Have you found any of the approaches you have used to be successful in helping children identify phonemes? Could you add activities that help children be confident about the order of the letters and sounds in the words?
• Research in the review referred to the importance of early diagnosis and working with parents. Do you and/or your learning support colleagues have ready access to expert advice in relation to recognising the detailed causes of children’s early reading difficulties?
• Research into a dyslexia friendly school showed that the teachers in the school adopted the philosophy that all students were capable of effective learning. This led them to keep dyslexic learners in mainstream classrooms as much as possible. To do this they explored a range of teaching and learning approaches, such as multi-sensory learning in reading, mind mapping, essay planning techniques and the use of frameworks. Are you and your colleagues familiar with some of these approaches? Are you aware of opportunities for professional development in this area? Could your school SENCO or a local authority expert support your learning and practice in teaching children with learning difficulties, including dyslexia?

School leaders may like to consider the following implications:

• The findings from the study suggest that by creating a dyslexia friendly learning environment schools can improve the learning outcomes for all students including those with dyslexia. The role of the school leader was identified as being particularly important for integrating the inputs from all members of the school community. Do you have a mechanism through which you can keep all staff informed about the policy and practice for dyslexic learners?
• Findings from the work on dyslexic-friendly schools suggested that teachers need professional development training in recognising and accommodating children’s individual learning strengths and weaknesses and emotional styles in order to successfully implement the inclusion agenda. Are you aware of such training opportunities in your LA? Are there other schools where teachers are further down the road in teaching dyslexic learners than you are and who might provide helpful advice and support for your staff? Does your local HEI offer courses on dyslexia?
  

Filling in the gaps

Gaps that are uncovered in a piece of research have a useful role in making sure that future research builds cumulatively on what is known. But research also needs to inform practice, so practitioners’ interpretation of the gaps and follow-up questions are crucial. We think three kinds of studies would usefully supplement the findings of the review:

• Studies that not only describe and discuss the symptoms of dyslexia but also evaluate over a period of time the effectiveness of different teaching and learning strategies.
• More research on the impact of ICT-based approaches.
• Case studies of approaches by teachers that have been successful in enhancing the learning of dyslexic learners.
• The impact of dyslexia on learners of English as an additional language and how dyslexic learners respond to learning foreign languages.

What is your experience?

Do you have any evidence regarding strategies for teaching and learning of students with dyslexia in your school? Do you have action research or enquiry based development programmes that are designed to explore the learning of dyslexic students that could provide case study material?  We would be interested to hear about examples of effective approaches, which we could perhaps feature in our case study section.