Study

last updated:April 2009

What messages does the study have for teachers about the brain and how it works?

Neuromyths:

• 'We only use 10% of our brain.'
• 'I'm a "left-brain", she is a "right-brain" person.'

The study provides insights into the structure and functioning of the brain which may help educators assess their underlying assumptions about teaching and learning. Importantly, a strong message emerging from the evidence is that of the brain's plasticity – its ability to change significantly over the lifespan in response to learning experiences.

The plasticity of the brain arises from the ability of its nerve cells or neurons to make and break connections with each other. The connections between nerve cells are called synapses, and the establishment and strengthening of synapses between multiple neurons is what enables the brain to carry out specific tasks, such as recognising objects. The more the brain carries out a particular task, the stronger the synapses between neurons become. If the brain ceases to carry out that task over a period of time the synapses weaken or may break altogether (pruning).

The majority of brain cells are present from birth, but the way they are connected to each other – the neural networks – continues to be modified throughout life. The important implication for educators from this is that learning, appropriately organised, can happen successfully at any stage in life.

The other implication of understanding the brain in terms of functional organisation is that even apparently simple tasks such as 'seeing' an object are the result of a complex process of information exchange and analysis. In the case of 'seeing', our brain synthesises the data from many specialist areas, each 'responsible for' only one aspect – recognising colour, shape, motion, etc. Functional organisation of the brain does not mean, however, that some areas might be inactive at a certain point in time. The recent research shows that the brain is 100% active, even when no movement, sensation or emotion is observed.

Some functions are present from birth, for example, the ability to distinguish words in speech by focusing on intonation and rhythm. Other functions, such as an ability to read, take a lot longer to develop. This is because the neural networks required for these skills can only function once a number of specialised areas have been connected and their activities co-ordinated.

Research into the composition of neural networks has also helped overturn the myth that people can be divided into 'right brained' and 'left brained' individuals. The myth arises from the fact that the two hemispheres of the brain tend to specialise in different functions (functional asymmetry):

the left hemisphere in carrying out language, mathematics and logic tasks, and
the right hemisphere in spatial awareness, emotions and synthetic thinking.

Some educationists have worried that, with its emphasis on language and mathematics, western education is designed for 'left brains' to the detriment of 'right brains'. On this basis they have advocated a broadening of teaching methods to include role-playing, music and drawing.

While the reviewers in this study see the educational benefits of a wider range of teaching methods, they argue that labelling children 'right brained' and 'left brained' has no basis in scientific evidence. Neuroscience has shown that despite functional asymmetry, the picture is more complex and the two hemispheres in fact work together, contributing to overall integrated brain activity. Evidence for this includes the fact that both hemispheres are involved in activities such as decoding written words, identifying numerals, and encoding spatial relationships.

How can knowledge about brain development over a lifetime inform teaching and learning?

Neuromyth: 'There are critical periods when certain things must be taught and learnt.'

The brain's plasticity means that while children are more capable of learning certain things than adults, there is no reliable evidence to date of "critical periods" in brain development. That is to say, there do not appear to be exclusive windows of opportunity for learning particular skills which cannot be learned at other stages in life. The authors of this review talk instead about "sensitive periods" – that is that there are optimum moments for learning certain skills.

Aspects of language recognition and production provide a good example of skills more easily developed within a sensitive period. Babies can distinguish all sounds, even those not occurring within their parents' native language. This ability diminishes as children grow, and adults have more difficulty distinguishing unfamiliar sounds making them more likely to have a foreign accent when speaking a different language.

In order to understand brain development in more detail the authors distinguish between experience-expectant plasticity and experience-dependent plasticity. Experience-expectant plasticity refers to adaptations the brain is genetically programmed to make based on exposure to specific stimuli, such as sound structures in language. Experience-expectant learning best occurs during sensitive periods early in life. For example, researchers have found that it is easier to learn grammar up to the age of 16.

Experience-dependent plasticity on the other hand refers to the modifications the brain makes over the lifespan based on exposure to complex environments. Experience-dependent learning does not occur within sensitive periods. This is true, for instance, for the capacity to learn vocabulary, which actually increases with age.

The authors also discussed evidence showing that once a sensitive period has passed, the brain adopts different strategies to acquire particular skills. In the example of grammar acquisition, research found that for late learners both hemispheres of the brain are activated. This contrasts with what occurs in younger learners, where only the left hemisphere is involved in grammar learning. There is a cost to later acquisition, however, research shows learners have greater difficulty in using grammar correctly. Nevertheless, the brain's plasticity means that grammar learning is still possible beyond the sensitive period.

How can neuroscience inform teaching language and literacy?

Neuromyth: 'A young child's brain can only manage to learn one language at a time.'

In today's global world, an ability to speak more than one language is generally considered valuable. Yet many people still believe that learning a foreign language early can impede native language acquisition. The review suggests the opposite: children can learn a second language without detriment to the first. In addition children who master two languages understand the structure of each language better and apply it in a more conscious way.

The reviewers in fact advocate learning a second language at an early age, as this is when children are most effective at learning many aspects of a language. However, they do emphasise that teaching foreign languages to young people must be done in an age appropriate way. For example, they claim rule-based methods for older students would not be effective for younger learners. Learning a second/foreign language early, the researchers conclude, has only positive effects on a child's language development, including their competency in the first/native language.

While language learning is something that comes naturally, learning to read and write is much more dependent on well planned and conscious teaching. Through the process of evolution the brain is primed to acquire language – to process certain stimuli according to universal language rules already wired into the brain when we are born. In contrast to language learning, there are no brain structures designed by evolution to acquire literacy. Literacy is often seen as being "on top of" language. As Vygotsky metaphorically described it, language structures provide scaffolding for literacy to be constructed in the brain. You can find more about Lev Vygotsky's work in our earlier RoM.

As far as teaching reading is concerned, the reviewers suggest that the evidence supports the so-called "dual route" theory. This theory states that the brain processes words along one of two complementary pathways, either by:

• converting letters/words into sounds, or
• via direct transfer of the whole word/phrase into meaning.

In the debate over whether children should be taught reading by focusing on phonetic skills or whole language text immersion, dual route theory implies the importance of both. The researchers in this study believe the evidence would back up such a balanced approach.  More information about teaching literacy can be found in a case study. You may also be interested in the findings of the Rose Review on developing children's reading skills (Please see Further Reading section for more details).

Development of literacy in the brain is mainly determined by experience, but biology has its own important part to play. Atypical features of their brain architecture can mean that some children struggle to learn to read and write. They are said to have developmental dyslexia, which used to be seen as a specific learning disability that is not related to other intellectual abilities and persists despite effective teaching. Recent research and teaching practice suggest that rather than being a disability, dyslexia is an alternative developmental pathway, for which effective teaching interventions have been developed. You might want to find out more in our earlier RoM about dyslexia.

How can neuroscience help teachers structure students' numeracy development?

The review highlighted how numeracy (like literacy) is created in the brain through a synergy of biology and experience. As with literacy, there are structures in the brain that are designed for numeracy. But as with literacy, the genetically-destined structures cannot support mathematics development on their own. The activities of these structures have to co-ordinate with those of supplementary neural circuits that are not specifically destined for numeracy, but are shaped to fit this function by experience. The review's findings have implications for both teaching and assessing mathematics, including the importance of:

• linking number and space in teaching mathematics
• assessing in a way which gives the teacher an insight into the learning and reasoning process, rather than simply looking for the right answer.

Making use of the biological pathway

It was long believed that babies were born without any quantitative abilities – that they found out about the world simply through exploring it. But research included in the review showed that the baby's brain is equipped with the ability to count and distinguish large from small quantities. So, young children have a substantial foundation of numerical understandings prior to formal education. The studies suggested that mathematics teaching should build upon children's informal and intuitive numerical understandings. You may like to read case study 3 of our earlier RoM about Jerome Bruner's work which explores ways of developing children's division strategies. The researchers also suggested that it is important that teachers use children's natural numerical understandings as a rich source of scaffolding. You can find out about approaches to scaffolding in our earlier RoM about Lev Vygotsky's work.

The importance of experience

The review found that different teaching methods create neural pathways of varying effectiveness: the neural pathways developed through drill learning (e.g. memorising that 10 plus 10 equals 20), for instance were shown to be less effective than those developed through strategy learning (e.g. applying the strategy of double-digit addition). The review also found that as the neural circuits for number and space are intertwined, teaching methods that link number and space, such as number lines, blocks, rods, and board games make powerful teaching tools. Work started by teachers from a small infant school in Sussex which is now widely used, particularly in the teaching of Downs Syndrome children, offers a powerful example of such an approach. To find out more about multi-sensory approaches to teaching mental arithmetic, follow the link to this case study.

The importance of assessing the learning process underlying students' answers

The review's findings have important implications for assessment too. The review indicated that correct/incorrect measures of assessment are inadequate for assessing understanding as they cannot differentiate between, for example, knowledge which has been encoded as fact and knowledge encoded through strategy. To assess underlying understanding requires approaches which explore learning pathways, rather than focusing on correct or incorrect answers. In the approach mistakes are used as opportunities to identify learning gaps and develop understanding. There are some links here with particular approaches to Assessment for Learning (AfL). You can find out more in our earlier RoM about putting AfL into practice.

What do teachers need to know about early learning to help them recognise challenges and structure learning?

Neuromyth: 'There is no time to lose as everything about the brain is decided by the age of three.'

The early years are a period of rapid development of neural networks. Synapses (connections between nerve cells) in newborns are relatively low in number but after two months of growth, the synaptic density of the brain increases and exceeds that of an adult, peaking at ten months. The number of synapses then reduces gradually, reaching adult levels around age ten. The implication of this is that the very early years provide a special opportunity for learning, in which many neuronal paths are created. The reviewers, however, draw a distinction between this and the claim that children's brains must be constantly stimulated in the early years to improve longer term learning capacity. They found little evidence to support such a claim.

On the other hand, the researchers point to evidence which shows that deficits in a child's early years environment can have a negative impact on development. Negative factors include:

• ongoing discord and conflict, for example when an adult scapegoats a child for things that are not going well
• a lack of individual contact with a carer
• a lack of reciprocal conversation and play
• negative social ethos.

The evidence is that children experiencing early negative environments are highly likely to suffer long-term consequences. Research into the development of Romanian orphans found that the majority of them developed profound social and emotional problems. On the other hand, research also suggests that early neural damage due to institutional deprivation is not deterministic: outcomes for the individuals in one study varied widely. The reviewers conclude from this that it is important for those surrounding young children to try to build reciprocal relationships. One way to achieve this is for early years providers and schools to encourage parents to interact with their children. You may like to read case study 3 of an earlier RoM to explore examples of ways of increasing parental involvement in education.

The importance of play in early childhood

Relationship building and human interactions are also fostered through play. The review found that well-run, play-based early childhood programmes had a positive impact on:

• intellectual development
• social achievements
• self-esteem
• task orientation.

Specifically, one study found that children who experienced learner-centred environments developed better listening skills. A further study pointed to the importance of adults' attitude towards play as important in child development. The researchers found that the extent of children's engagement in play varied according to culture and the extent to which adults were prepared to invest the time and energy to actively encourage it. Practitioners may like to read more about how to encourage and organise children's play in a case study which explores different types of play and how teachers helped children develop more sophisticated skills through play.

What do teachers need to know about structuring learning for the teenage years?
    
Neuromyth: "The brain is largely a finished product by the age of 12."

The adolescent brain is a "work in progress": brain volume and myelination (maturing of neurons, resulting in increased speed of transmitting information between the neurons) continue to grow until the young adult period. Several parts of the brain continue to grow during teenage years. The changes in the areas of the brain regulating motivating reward behaviour may steer the teenagers to risky, high reward behaviours. Another area that continues to grow and develop is the cerebellum. The cerebellum is responsible for posture, movement and balance; it also influences other parts of the brain responsible for motor actions and is involved in cognitive functions, especially language. Finally, the prefrontal cortex, which governs cognition amongst other functions, is pruned during adolescence. Recent studies suggest that the way the prefrontal cortex develops during this period could have an impact on teenagers' ability to regulate their emotions.

Teenagers have rather well developed cognitive capacity but are emotionally immature, which the researchers metaphorically described as "high horsepower, poor steering". Emotional development during adolescence affects social awareness and character and is partly due to the surge of hormones in the brain. Sex hormones are important in the emotional centre of the brain; they influence serotonin and other neurochemicals which affect mood, and thus play an active role in teenagers' intense emotions and thrill-seeking behaviour. Difficulties with regulating strong emotions can affect teenagers' learning capabilities. Emotional regulation is an important skill of effective learners, helping them to focus attention and solve problems.

The review found positive emotions trigger motivation to learn. They argue that the brain responds very well to the "enlightenment", illumination that comes with the understanding of new concepts. Helping children and young people realise how pleasurable learning can be is a way of improving motivation and engaging disaffected learners. Practitioners may like to read a case study of how introducing creative elements into the curriculum helped teenage pupils realise that learning can be fun and improved their learning, motivation and behaviour.

Latest research findings suggest that teenagers' decision-making functions are usually not fully developed. Some studies connect this immaturity in making decisions with, for example, a much higher rate of teenage drivers involved in fatal car accidents. Considering it is in their adolescent years most people make important decisions, such as career choice, the researchers recommend the education system takes this into account and plans for a broader range of formal and informal learning opportunities for people to switch course later in life. You might want to learn more about how teacher beliefs and aspirations for children and young people affect their pupils' learning in the Behaviour for learning RoM anthology.

How can teachers help children monitor and regulate their emotions in the classroom?

Evidence from the fields of neurobiology and education suggests that learning occurs not only as the result of thinking processes, but that emotions and physical exercise also play a central role. Emotional competency or intelligence has been described as "one's ability to self-regulate – that is, to restrain one's impulses and instincts, but also includes the capacity for compassion, and the ability to engage in co-operation."

Much of the research into the development of emotional self-regulation has taken place among children in their early years. The outcomes suggest a link not only between children's ability to learn to monitor and control their emotions and their ability to create and maintain positive relations with peers, but also between social competence and later academic outcomes. The latter was demonstrated, for example, in a study in which four-year-old children had the task of resisting the temptation to eat one marshmallow in order to receive two later on. The researchers found that those children who resisted the impulse longest were more likely to be the ones who enjoyed later academic success.

Research also shows that high levels of stress can have a detrimental effect on learning. When faced with negative emotions such as fear and stress several processes kick in to mediate the effect. This includes increased heart rate, perspiration, increased adrenaline levels, and the release of stress hormones. While a small amount of stress can lead to improved learning and adaptation to a changing environment, beyond low levels it can be damaging both mentally and physically, and can block learning. In the school environment children may experience stress when confronted with bullying students, aggressive teachers, or learning materials that are difficult to understand.

One way of helping children develop a more robust temperament for dealing with stress over the long-term is through more physical activity. Research has shown that sports people respond to stress by exhibiting less anxiety and greater calmness. Other research among adults has shown a link between increased aerobic exercise (in this case walking) and improved brain functioning. Further studies have found a link between physical activity and improved motor co-ordination and control. You might want to read a case study to learn more about the impact of a physical exercise programme on children's concentration and behaviour, fine and gross motor skills and reading accuracy.

Other forms of exercise which can be carried out in the classroom also have the potential to improve learning. In a project led by Alan Watkins with the support from the Southampton LEA, for example, teachers have introduced rhythmic breathing as part of an emotional literacy programme. The effect is to regulate the heart rate, thus stabilising the physiological state, and in turn the child's emotional state. (Please see OECD, 2003 in the Further Reading section for more details)

Communication training is another approach that has helped children deal with negative emotions in ways that are more positive socially. The Rosenberg method (Rosenberg, 1999 in Further Reading section), for example, is a non-violent communication process which has been taken up in several countries. The core feature of this approach is to help individuals become aware of their basic needs and develop their communication skills so they are in a better position to articulate these needs.

What is the role of memory in learning?

Neuromyths: 'Improve your memory!'

Memory and learning are interdependent: memory is built on learning while the benefits of learning can be 'stored' and developed thanks to memory. During the learning process, traces are left by the processing of information. Memory is a cognitive process that allows us both to reactivate these traces and to further develop them when acquiring new information. Memory, being tightly connected with learning, can be influenced by the same factors as learning, for example strong emotions, high motivation or increased attention.

Contrary to some popular urban myths, memory is not infinite, because the number of neuronal networks, where the information is stored, is enormous but finite. Research has also shown that the capacity to forget is necessary for building up an efficient memory. The researchers argue that many of the impressive performances, where people demonstrate, for example, memorising long lists of numbers or playing several games of chess blindfolded, should be seen as a specialised way of thinking rather than a specific type of visual memory.

The researchers question some of the current teaching methods and student evaluation approaches that rely too much on memory. Development of neuroscience, they argue, suggests there should be more emphasis on comprehension and learning how to learn in modern education.

How was the research designed?

In 1999 the "Learning Sciences and Brain Research" project was launched by the Centre for Educational Research and Innovation. The project was aimed at reviewing potential implications of recent research findings in brain and learning sciences for policy-makers and all those involved in education as parents, teachers, researchers, policy makers and learners.

The second phase of the project (2002-2006), reported in the study, channelled its activities on the following issues: Literacy, Numeracy, Lifelong Learning and Emotions and Learning. The content of the report derived from literature reviews, three trans-disciplinary and international networks and a focus activity, in which cognitive neuroscientists were challenged to tackle questions relevant to teaching and learning.

The project was run and supported by various institutions in the countries-members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), particularly the USA, Japan, Denmark, Finland, Germany, France, Spain and the UK. DfES, the Lifelong learning Foundation and Cambridge University were amongst the British organizations contributing to the project.

What are the research implications?

Teachers may wish to consider the following implications of the findings of this research:

• The review showed that learning a second/foreign language early has many positive effects on a child's language development, including their competency in the first/native language. If you have bilingual or minority ethnic children in your class, how could you encourage them to develop their language skills in their home language?  Could the parents of bilingual children be encouraged to help them develop reading skills in their home language, or could you link up with complementary institutions such as a community centre or mosque to discuss home language provision?
• Researchers in the study emphasised that teenagers often experience difficulties with regulating strong emotions, which can affect their learning. You might like to reflect on your recent lessons and consider how you support your pupils in developing strategies for managing their emotions in learning situations. Would you find it helpful to work with a colleague and your students to build a bank of examples of the ways in which emotions can inhibit and enhance learning and decision making, and a bank of strategies for managing such situations?
• The review showed that the quality of interaction with their parents is crucial to young children's development. Could you give parents and carers more guidance on activities that they could do at home that connect with their children's development, such as reading books, singing songs and nursery rhymes, painting and drawing, playing with numbers and letters or using pretend play, perhaps using a similar approach to that described in case study 3?
• Based on the finding that the neural circuits for number and space are intertwined, the researchers recommended using teaching methods that link number and space, such as number lines, blocks, rods, and board games. Could you reflect on how often you use these and similar teaching tools? How effective do you find them in your context? 
  

School leaders may wish to consider the following implications from the study:

• The research showed that language acquisition and the development of language skills were strongly dependant on experience. Do you have a whole school strategy for developing your pupils' language skills, for example vocabulary? Could the opportunities provided to the young people at school be increased by working collaboratively with their families?
• The researchers questioned some current teaching methods and student evaluation approaches, pointing out that they rely too much on memory. Students' ability to reproduce facts is easier for teachers to measure than assessing the degree to which they understand a problem or the ways they go about solving it, and some subject areas may be more sophisticated in their approach to assessment than others. Would it be worth exploring your colleagues' repertoire and understanding of approaches to assessment, for example as a focus for cross-school CPD?

Filling in the gaps

Gaps that are uncovered in a field of research also have a useful role in making sure that future research builds cumulatively on what is known. But research also needs to inform practice, so practitioners' interpretation of the gaps and follow-up questions are crucial. The researchers highlighted several areas of research which were not explored by the project:

• better understanding of optimal timing – "sensitive periods" –  for learning, especially in relation to adolescents and older adults
• the role of interaction with others and cultural differences in learning
• multi-dimensional pathways to competence, for example reading
• understanding different brain activity – neural networks, role of cognitive function and memory – among "experts" as compared with average learners and those with genuine problems. This could inform both the identification of successful learning and of effective, targeted teaching methods
• the impact of emotions on learning, in particular how the adolescent's emotional brain interacts with different kinds of classroom environments.

Do you think that research exploring these questions would help you inform your practice?  Which issues are of most interest to you?

What is your experience?

Do you have any evidence regarding the development of the human brain over a lifetime and how that links with approaches to learning? Do you have action research or enquiry based development programmes running that explore, for example, children with atypical literacy or numeracy development? We would be interested to hear about examples of application of neuroscience to develop learning in and outside the classroom, which we could perhaps feature in our case study section.

Your feedback

Have you found this study to be useful? Have you used any aspect of this research in your own classroom teaching practice? We would like to hear your feedback on this study. Email research@gtce.org.uk to share your views with us.